Canadian apology, and the Catholic lack thereof

Despite the fact that there is still much more needed to be done, there at least has been an accounting made by the Canadian government of the atrocities committed against certain indigenous peoples of Canada.  This is a lot more than can be said about the United States. 

In regard to the Catholic Church and the issue of the Church's role in committing crimes and atrocities against the indigenous peoples of North America, Pope Benedict XVI, on April 29, 2009, expressed his "sorrow" to a delegation from Canada's Assembly of First Nations for the abuse and "deplorable" treatment that aboriginal students suffered at Roman Catholic Church-run residential schools.

At the time, then Assembly of First Nations Leader Phil Fontaine said it wasn't an "official apology," but added that he hoped the statement would "close the book" on the issue of apologies for residential school survivors.

A history of residential schools in Canada

FAQs on residential schools, compensation and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission

CBC News Posted: May 16, 2008 11:22 AM ET Last Updated: Jan 07, 2014 1:47 PM ET

What is a residential school?

In the 19th century, the Canadian government believed it was responsible for educating and caring for aboriginal people in Canada. It thought their best chance for success was to learn English and adopt Christianity and Canadian customs. Ideally, they would pass their adopted lifestyle on to their children, and native traditions would diminish, or be completely abolished in a few generations.

The Canadian government developed a policy called "aggressive assimilation" to be taught at church-run, government-funded industrial schools, later called residential schools. The government felt children were easier to mold than adults, and the concept of a boarding school was the best way to prepare them for life in mainstream society.

Residential schools were federally run, under the Department of Indian Affairs. Attendance was mandatory. Agents were employed by the government to ensure all native children attended.

How many residential schools and students were there?

CBC Digital Archives material on residential schools:

    A lost heritage: Canada's residential schools (1955 - 2002)

    Remembering the bad old days in the residential school (1972)

    Native leader charges church with abuse (1990)

    A long-awaited apology (2008)

Initially, about 1,100 students attended 69 schools across the country. In 1931, at the peak of the residential school system, there were about 80 schools operating in Canada. There were a total of about 130 schools in every territory and province except Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick from the earliest in the 19th century to the last, which closed in 1996.

In all, about 150,000 First Nation, Inuit and Métis children were removed from their communities and forced to attend the schools.

What went wrong?

Residential schools were established with the assumption that aboriginal culture was unable to adapt to a rapidly modernizing society. It was believed that native children could be successful if they assimilated into mainstream Canadian society by adopting Christianity and speaking English or French. Students were discouraged from speaking their first language or practising native traditions. If they were caught, they would experience severe punishment.

Throughout the years, students lived in substandard conditions and endured physical and emotional abuse. There have also been convictions of sexual abuse. Students at residential schools rarely had opportunities to see examples of normal family life. Most were in school 10 months a year, away from their parents; some stayed all year round. All correspondence from the children was written in English, which many parents couldn't read. Brothers and sisters at the same school rarely saw each other, as all activities were segregated by gender.

According to documents obtained by the CBC, some schools carried out nutritional experiments on malnourished students in the 1940s and '50s with the federal government's knowledge.

When students returned to the reserve, they often found they didn't belong. They didn't have the skills to help their parents, and became ashamed of their native heritage. The skills taught at the schools were generally substandard; many found it hard to function in an urban setting. The aims of assimilation meant devastation for those who were subjected to years of abuse.

When did the calls for victim compensation begin?

In 1990, Phil Fontaine, then-leader of the Association of Manitoba Chiefs, called for the churches involved to acknowledge the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse endured by students at the schools. A year later, the government convened a Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Many people told the commission about their residential school experiences, and the commission's 1996 report recommended a separate public inquiry into residential schools. That recommendation was never followed.

Over the years, the government worked with the Anglican, Catholic, United and Presbyterian churches, which ran residential schools, to design a plan to compensate the former students.

In 2007, two years after it was first announced, the federal government formalized a $1.9-billion compensation package for those who were forced to attend residential schools.

Under the federal compensation package, what have former students received?

Compensation called Common Experience Payments was made available to residential schools students who were alive as of May 30, 2005. Former residential school students are eligible for $10,000 for the first year or part of a year they attended school, plus $3,000 for each subsequent year.

Residential school survivor

Residential school survivor Chief William Walker listens to speakers during a Truth and Reconciliation Commission event in Vancouver in September 2013. (Darryl Dyck/Canadian Press)

Any money remaining from the $1.9-billion package will be given to foundations that support learning needs of aboriginal students.

As of Sept. 30, 2013, $1.6 billion had been paid, representing 105,548 cases.

Acceptance of the Common Experience Payment releases the government and churches from all further liability relating to the residential school experience, except in cases of sexual abuse and serious incidents of physical abuse.

What has happened in cases of alleged sexual or serious physical abuse?

An Independent Assessment Process, or IAP, was set up to address sexual abuse cases and serious incidents of physical abuse. A former student who accepts the Common Experience Payment can pursue a further claim for sexual or serious physical abuse.

Is there more to the package than compensating the victims?

The government funded a Commemoration initiative, which consisted of events, projects and memorials on a national and community level.

The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was established in 1998 with a $350-million grant from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada to help former students who were physically or sexually abused, but federal funding ended in 2010.

The settlement also promised a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to examine the legacy of the residential schools.

Prime Minister Stephen Harper delivered an official apology to residential school students in Parliament on June 11, 2008.

Who else has apologized for the abuse?

Many churches implicated in the abuse apologized in the 1990s. Archbishop Michael Peers offered an apology on behalf of the Anglican Church of Canada in 1993, stating "I am sorry, more than I can say, that we were part of a system which took you and your children from home and family."

Four leaders of the Presbyterian Church signed a statement of apology in 1994. "It is with deep humility and in great sorrow that we come before God and our aboriginal brothers and sisters with our confession," it said.

The United Church of Canada formally apologized to Canada's First Nations people in 1986, and offered its second apology in 1998 for the abuse that happened at residential schools.

"To those individuals who were physically, sexually, and mentally abused as students of the Indian Residential Schools in which the United Church of Canada was involved, I offer you our most sincere apology," the statement by the church's General Council Executive said.

Though the Catholic church oversaw three-quarters of Canadian residential schools, it was the last church to have one of its leaders officially address the abuse.

    'I am sorry, more than I can say, that we were part of a system which took you and your children from home and family.'—Archbishop Michael Peers, Anglican Church of Canada

On April 29, 2009, Pope Benedict XVI expressed his "sorrow" to a delegation from Canada's Assembly of First Nations for the abuse and "deplorable" treatment that aboriginal students suffered at Roman Catholic Church-run residential schools.

At the time, then Assembly of First Nations Leader Phil Fontaine said it wasn't an "official apology," but added that he hoped the statement would "close the book" on the issue of apologies for residential school survivors.

What is the mandate of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission?

Established on June 1, 2008, the goals of the TRC include documenting and promoting the extent and impact of residential school experiences; providing a safe setting for former students to share their stories; and producing a report to the federal government on the legacy of the residential school system.

The commission has held events in several Canadian cities to publicly address the experiences of First Nations, Metis, and Inuit children in residential schools across the country.

One of the accomplishments of the TRC was gaining access to more of the 3.5 million documents held by the federal government related to residential schools. First Nations leaders and activists say these files could build a stronger case for genocide in Canada.

The TRC's mandate was supposed to end in 2014, but in Nov. 2013, Bernard Valcourt, the minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, announced that the TRC would be given until June 30, 2015, to complete its mandate.

 

Pope John Paul II speech in Indigenous peoples

Check out the full version of Pope John Paul II’s speech given at Memorial Coliseum in Phoenix, on September 14, 1987, as part of his “APOSTOLIC JOURNEY TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND CANADA, MEETING WITH THE NATIVE PEOPLES OF THE AMERICAS”:

Dear Brothers and Sisters,

1. I have greatly looked forward to this visit with you, the original peoples of this vast country. I greet you with love and respect. And as I greet you, I wish to tell you how pleased I am to find among you one of your sons raised to the episcopate - Bishop Pelotte. I thank you for inviting me to be with you and for sharing with me some aspects of your rich and ancient culture.

I have listened to your concerns and hopes. As your representatives spoke, I traced in my heart the history of your tribes and nations. I was able to see you as the noble descendants of countless generations of inhabitants of this land, whose ways were marked by great respect for the natural resources of land and rivers, of forest and plain and desert. Here your forefathers cherished and sought to pass on to each new generation their customs and traditions, their history and way of life. Here they worshipped the Creator and thanked him for his gifts. In contact with the forces of nature they learned the value of prayer, of silence and fasting, of patience and courage in the face of pain and disappointment.

2. The early encounter between your traditional cultures and the European way of life was an event of such significance and change that it profoundly influences your collective life even today. That encounter was a harsh and painful reality for your peoples. The cultural oppression, the injustices, the disruption of your life and of your traditional societies must be acknowledged.

At the same time, in order to be objective, history must record the deeply positive aspects of your people’s encounter with the culture that came from Europe. Among these positive aspects I wish to recall the work of the many missionaries who strenuously defended the rights of the original inhabitants of this land. They established missions throughout this southwestern part of the United States. They worked to improve living conditions and set up educational systems, learning your languages in order to do so. Above all, they proclaimed the Good News of salvation in our Lord Jesus Christ, an essential part of which is that all men and women are equally children of God and must be respected and loved as such. This Gospel of Jesus Christ is today, and will remain forever, the greatest pride and possession of your people.

3. One priest who deserves special mention among the missionaries is the beloved Fray Junipero Serra, who travelled throughout Lower and Upper California. He had frequent clashes with the civil authorities over the treatment of Indians. In 1773 he presented to the Viceroy in Mexico City a Representación, which is sometimes termed a "Bill of Rights" for Indians. The Church had long been convinced of the need to protect them from exploitation. Already in 1537, my predecessor Pope Paul III proclaimed the dignity and rights of the native peoples of the Americas by insisting that they not be deprived of their freedom or the possession of their property (Pauli III, Pastorale Officium, 29 maggio 1537: Denz.-S. 1495). In Spain the Dominican priest, Francisco de Vitoria, became the staunch advocate of the rights of the Indians and formulated the basis for international law regarding the rights of peoples.

Unfortunately not all the members of the Church lived up to their Christian responsibilities. But let us not dwell excessively on mistakes and wrongs, even as we commit ourselves to overcoming their present effects. Let us also be grateful to those who came to this land, faithful to the teachings of Jesus, witnesses of his new commandment of love. These men and women, with good hearts and good minds, shared knowledge and skills from their own cultures and shared their most precious heritage, the faith, as well. Now, we are called to learn from the mistakes of the past and we must work together for reconciliation and healing, as brothers and sisters in Christ.

4. It is time to think of the present and of the future. Today, people are realizing more and more clearly that we all belong to the one human family, and are meant to walk and work together in mutual respect, understanding, trust and love. Within this family each people preserves and expresses its own identity and enriches others with its gifts of culture, tradition, customs, stories, song, dance, art and skills.

From the very beginning, the Creator bestowed his gifts on each people. It is clear that stereotyping. prejudice, bigotry and racism demean the human dignity which comes from the hand of the Creator and which is seen in variety and diversity. I encourage you, as native people belonging to the different tribes and nations in the East, South, West and North, to preserve and keep alive your cultures, your languages, the values and customs which have served you well in the past and which provide a solid foundation for the future. Your customs that mark the various stages of life, your love for the extended family, your respect for the dignity and worth of every human being, from the unborn to the aged, and your stewardship and care of the earth: these things benefit not only yourselves but the entire human family.

Your gifts can also be expressed even more fully in the Christian way of life. The Gospel of Jesus Christ is at home in every people. It enriches, uplifts and purifies every culture. All of us together make up the People of God, the Body of Christ, the Church. We should all be grateful for the growing unity, presence, voice and leadership of Catholic Native Americans in the Church today.

Jesus speaks of the word of God as the seed which falls on good ground and produces abundant fruit (Cfr. Matth 13, 4ss.). The seed has long since been planted in the hearts of many of you. And it has already produced the fruits which show its transforming power - the fruits of holiness. The best known witness of Christian holiness among the native people of North America is Kateri Tekakwitha, whom I had the privilege, seven years ago, of declaring "Blessed" and of holding up to the whole Church and the world as an outstanding example of Christian life. Even when she dedicated herself fully to Jesus Christ, to the point of taking the prophetic step of making a vow of perpetual virginity, she always remained what she was, a true daughter of her people, following her tribe in the hunting seasons and continuing her devotions in the environment most suited to her way of life, before a rough cross carved by herself in the forest. The Gospel of Jesus Christ, which is the great gift of God’s love, is never in contrast with what is noble and pure in the life of any tribe or nation, since all good things are his gifts.

5. I would like to repeat what I said at my meeting with native peoples at the Shrine of Saint Anne de Beaupré during my visit to Canada in 1984: "Your encounter with the Gospel has not only enriched you; it has enriched the Church. We are well aware that this has not taken place without its difficulties and, occasionally, its blunders. However, and you are experiencing this today, the Gospel does not destroy what is best in you. On the contrary, it enriches, as it were from within, the spiritual qualities and gifts that are distinctive of your cultures" (Ioannis Pauli PP. II, Allocutio ad indigenas populationes Canadenses, 3, die 10 sept. 1984: Insegnamenti di Giovanni Paolo II, VII/2 [1984] 407). The American Bishops’ Statement on Native Americans rightly attests that our Catholic faith is capable of thriving " within each culture, within each nation, within each race, while remaining the prisoner of none" (Statement of 4 May 1977).

Here too I wish to urge the local Churches to be truly "catholic" in their outreach to native peoples, and to show respect and honour for their culture and all their worthy traditions. From your ranks have come a bishop, a number of priests, many permanent deacons, men and women religious and lay leaders. To all of you who have an active part in the Church’s ministry I wish to express my gratitude and support. But the Church has some special needs at this time. And for this reason I directly appeal to you, especially to you young Native Americans, to discover if Jesus is calling you to the priesthood or to the religious life. Hear him and follow him! He will never let you down! He will lead you, in the Church, to serve your own peoples and others in the best way possible, in love and apostolic generosity.

At the same time I call upon your native Catholic communities to work together to share their faith and their gifts, to work together on behalf of all your peoples. There is much to be done in solving common problems of unemployment, inadequate health care, alcoholism and chemical dependency. You have endured much over hundreds of years and your difficulties are not yet at an end. Continue taking steps towards true human progress and towards reconciliation within your families and your communities, and among your tribes and nations.

6. One day Jesus said: “The thief comes only to steal and slaughter and destroy. I came that they might have life and have it to the full” (Io. 10, 10).

Surely, the times has come for the native peoples of America to have a new life in Jesus Christ - the new life of adopted children of God, with all its consequences:

A life in justice and full human dignity!

A life of pride in their own good traditions, and of fraternal solidarity among themselves and with all their brothers and sisters in America!

A deeper life in charity and grace, leading to the fullness of eternal life in heaven!

All consciences must be challenged. There are real injustices to be addressed and biased attitudes to be changed. But the greatest challenge is to you yourselves, as Native Americans. You must continue to grow in respect for your own inalienable human dignity, for the gifts of Creation and Redemption as they touch your lives and the lives of your peoples. You must unyieldingly pursue your spiritual and moral goals. You must trust in your own future.

As Catholic Native Americans, you are called to become instruments of the healing power of Christ’s love, instruments of his peace. May the Church in your midst - your own community of faith and fellowship - truly bear witness to the new life that comes from the Cross and Resurrection of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.

Papal Bull Inter Caetera

Christopher Columbus' so-called “discovery” in 1492 of what were initially believed to be Asiatic lands in the western seas threatened the already unstable relationship between the kingdoms of Portugal and Castile, which had been jockeying for position and possession of colonial territories along the African coast for many years.  The king of Portugal asserted that the discovery was within the bounds set forth in Papal bulls in 1455, 1456, and 1479. The king and queen of Castile disputed this and sought a new Papal Bull on the subject.

Pope Alexander VI, a native of Valencia and a friend of the Castilian king, responded with three bulls, which were highly favorable to Castile. The third of these bulls, Inter Caetera, became the authoritative document regarding claims of empire in the so-called "new world." The bull assigned to Castile the exclusive right to acquire territory west of the meridian situated one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands.  More specifically, it justified, in the pursuit of wealth, the conquest, subjugation and even atrocities committed against the peoples of what is today the Caribbean Islands, as well Central and South America.

The Spanish Christ (Part 3)

                                                 THE CHRIST MYTH EXPOSED

According to Hugo Assmann, despite what church institutions, exegetes and theologians say and teach about Jesus, it is the dialectic of one’s social reality that forms a person’s understanding of Jesus Christ.  That is, it is the actions of those portraying themselves as God’s agents and claiming to be carrying out the will of God that create the concrete images of God (good and bad, orthodox and heretical) in the minds of those affected by said actions.8 Accordingly, the Spanish monarchy, making the claim of Christian kingship and assuming the sacred role of Christ’s vicar, came to represent, not just the doctrinal image of Christ, but one that went beyond church doctrine and teaching.  The actions of the monarchy, and subsequently those of civil authorities in Latin America, immersed in Christian symbolism, were in effect theological projections, projecting a Spanish monarchical-centric conceptualization of Christianity to the indigenous peoples and becoming part of what formed their perceptions of the Christian God.9

In The Other Spanish Christ, John Mackay states that Spain “brought Christianity under its dominion” to the point of “appropriating God.”10 The God projected by the Spanish civil authorities in Latin America is one that Jon Sobrino refers to as “Christ as power”,11 that is, the “God” of the Spanish royal imperial government.  The theology or ideology of theocratic kingship, conditioned politically and financially by the monarchy and used to preserve and promulgate its interests, was one that projected to the native inhabitants of Latin America a Christology of Christ as conqueror and even oppressor instead of Christ the Redeemer and Suffering Servant.

According to George Casalis, in many Latin American churches, Christ was and still is represented as a celestial Ferdinand of Aragon, complete with gold- and jewel-laden vesture and crown.  As explained by Casalis, Christ was fashioned as a heavenly Ferdinand while Ferdinand himself was something akin to the ‘royal lieutenant’ of Christ’s eternal commission and a glorified being whose power and authority is worthy of veneration as if God himself.12 It was through the earthly monarchs that Christ the ‘heavenly monarch’ was made manifest and revealed to the native peoples of Latin America.13 These images have come to represent subjugation, oppression, and even death for certain Latin American populations for many hundreds of years, and still do to this day.14

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8 Hugo Assmann, “The Actuation of the Power of Christ in History: Notes on the Discernment of Christological Contradictions,” Jose Miguez Bonino, ed., Faces of Jesus: Latin American Christologies, (Maryknoll New York: Orbis Books, 1984) 126-27.

9 It was not doctrinal church teaching of Jesus Christ that ‘Christian’ monarchs from Constantine onwards, disseminated, much less espoused.  The kind of ‘Christianity’ or theocracy championed by most ‘Christian’ monarchs in Eastern and Western Europe, beginning with Constantine and the Roman Empire in the fourth century, was void of the characteristics and attributes of the ‘historical Jesus’, that is, Jesus of Nazareth and his Kingdom message of repentance, love of neighbor, humility, material poverty, service to others, and ‘turn the other cheek’.  Rather, the characteristics and attributes of Jesus Christ employed, utilized, or cleaved to, by Christian monarchs, as well as certain epochs of both the Catholic and Protestant churches, to assist in widening the boundaries of earthly kingdoms and ecclesiastical control, were those of the ‘Christ of faith,’ that is, the post-resurrection Jesus who reigns from heaven and who has been given all power and authority as explained in Sacred Scripture (Matt 26:64; 28:18) and in the language of the Creed.  Along with the ‘historical Jesus’ the ‘Christ of faith’ is an aspect of doctrinal Incarnation Christological church teaching, but how the Christology of these monarchs, as well as certain church leaders, went astray from what the church believes and teaches about Jesus Christ, was by shifting the focus almost exclusively to the side of the ‘Christ of faith’, while virtually disregarding the ‘historical Jesus’, save Christ’s death on the cross.  The ramification here is that the predominant image of Christ promulgated to the world through the actions of certain monarchs claiming the role of Christ’s earthly vicar was that of a monophysite or docetic Christ, a cosmically all-powerful Christ who is without the characteristics and attributes possessed and exhibited by the ‘historical Jesus’, such as humility, as well as self- and world-denying love and mercy.  A corollary implication of this distorted or one-sided image is a Christ who is a national or ethnic God who favors one nation, culture or civilization over another, begat by Constantine and Eusebius and then propagated by Christian monarchs in both Eastern and Western Europe, as well as certain church leaders.

10 John Mackay, The other Spanish Christ: A Study in the Spiritual History of Spain and South America, (New York: Macmillan, 1932) 8-9.

 11 Jon Sobrino, Jesus the Liberator: A Historical-Theological Reading of Jesus of Nazareth, trans. Paul Burns and Francis McDonagh, (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1993) 15.

12 Georges Casalis, “Jesus – Neither Abstract Lord Nor Heavenly Monarch,” Faces of Jesus: Latin American Christologies, ed. Jose Miguez Bonino, trans. Robert R. Barr, (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1983) 74.

13 Saul Trinidad, “Christology, Conquista, Colonization,” Faces of Jesus in Latin American Christologies 52.

14 Casalis, “Jesus – Neither Abstract Lord Nor Heavenly Monarch,” Faces of Jesus: Latin American Christologies 74. In “Jesus Through the Centuries” Jaroslav Pelikan gives an explanation for the simultaneous existence of different and sometimes disparate and incongruent Christologies or understandings of the person and office of Christ by pointing out the long history of the existence of both “dogma” and “image” of Christ. While dogma is an exegetical filter that restricts our misunderstanding of Jesus Christ, image is sometimes the end-result of an unrestrained eisegesis – the appending of traits and characteristics of Christ not found in Sacred Scripture and Tradition, and/or the distortion of Scripture and Tradition. 

The Spanish Christ (Part 2)

                                                     CHRIST THE KING OF SPAIN

 

In a surviving Aztec illustration dated between the years 1519 and 1527, portraying the arrival of Cortez into Mexico, the horse-straddling Spanish conquistador is depicted holding up a cross in one hand and a sword in the other.2 It would not be long before this convergence of symbolism for church and civil authority was expanded from cross and sword to that of chapel and city hall, or even cathedral and presidential palace as they faced one another in the plazas of various Latin American towns and cities.3

From its first appearance in the “New World”, as alluded to by the sixteenth-century illustration of the simultaneous arrival of Christianity and Spanish authority, the Catholic Church was a participant right alongside the civil authorities in the conquest and colonization of the native peoples of Latin America, albeit playing a subordinate role to the authority of the monarchy.  The overriding ideal of the Spanish Christian theocracy in Latin America, as in Spain itself, was that of a single “Christian” state where the civil and ecclesiastical powers were closely connected, their authority given by God, but one where the monarchy held sway over the Church.4 Accordingly, the royal-theocratic image of Christ brought to Latin America by the Spanish was Christ the celestial monarch who reigns from the heavens over Spain’s imperial, military kingdom.5 When conquering and colonizing portions of Central and South America, the Spanish did so as Christians as well as Spaniards, representing both God and the monarchy; and in the process, impressed the basic tenet of Christendom’s royal theocratic ideology – unity of God and Crown – into the minds of the indigenous peoples.  At the heart of the religio-political system of King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella, as well as kings Charles I and Philip II, was the notion that the Spanish had been chosen by God to bring enlightenment and salvation to the non-Christian world,6 making the acceptance or rejection of Jesus Christ and Christianity a corresponding “yes” or “no” to the power and authority of the Spanish monarchy, and vice-versa. Ironically, either choice generally resulted in the decimation and collapse, and sometimes the complete destruction, of a given region’s people and culture.7

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2 Cathryn L. Lombardi, John V. Lombardi, K. Lynn Stoner, Latin American History: A Teaching Atlas, (University of Wisconsin Press, 1983) 67.

3 Phillip Berryman, Liberation Theology: The Essential Facts About the Revolutionary Movement in Latin America and Beyond, (Pantheon Books, 1987) 9.

4 Ibid. 10.

5 David Batstone, From Conquest to Struggle: Jesus of Nazareth in Latin America, (State University of New York Press, 1991) 17.

6 Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation (1492-1979), trans. Alan Neely, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1981) 38.

7 Ibid. 41-42. In Mexico alone, the site of Cortez’ plunder between the years 1532-1608 while under the rule of the Spanish Christians, the population declined from nearly 17 million to just over 1 million.